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Hamid Pourmand update. From Assist News Service, with thanks to Nicolei:
IRAN - Christians in Iran have expressed great fears for the life of pastor Hamid Pourmand, a lay leader in a church and a convert from Islam, who will appear before an Islamic court next week to face charges of apostasy. If found guilty he is likely to face the death penalty.Christian sources in Iran learned April 4 that pastor Pourmand is scheduled to appear before an Islamic court within the next 10 days. No specific date was given. Pastor Pourmand is a lay leader in the Assemblies of God church in Bandar-i Bushehr and converted to Christianity in 1980. At the time of his arrest he was a Colonel in the Iranian army.
According to Middle East Concern, Pourmand was arrested September 9, 2004, together with 85 other participants of the annual general conference of denomination. The other Christians were released within the next three days, but pastor Pourmand was charged with hiding his conversion from his superiors. According to Iranian law only Muslims can be officers in the army.
Pastor Pourmand was found guilty of this charge on February 16, 2005, even though he presented several papers in court which proved his superiors were aware he was a Christian. He was sentenced to three years imprisonment, discharge from the army, and loss of his entire income, pension and housing for his family. A few days later his wife and two children were forced to vacate their house.
Iranian Christian sources learned yesterday of the new charges of apostasy from Islam and proselytizing other Muslims. Apostasy is a capital offence in Iran.
In the last 16 years three Iranian church leaders have been charged with apostasy and found guilty. All three were sentenced to death. Pastor Hussein Soodman was hanged in 1989. Deacon Maher already had a noose around his neck when he signaled his willingness to recant and was released after signing a paper to that effect in 1992. Pastor Mehdi Dibaj was condemned to death in December 1993. He was released three weeks later after a strong international outcry, only to be found murdered six months later.
Posted by Robert at April 6, 2005 7:52 AM
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Posted by: Ali Dashti
at April 6, 2005 8:31 AM
Christians of the world beware: this will happen to you if you allow Islam to gain a foothold in the territory where you live. History has given us this lesson that is being repeated in front of our eyes.
Posted by: epg
at April 6, 2005 8:56 AM
All together now:
Q 2:256 There is no compulsion in religion.
Unless that religion is islam.
Geoff
Posted by: Geoff
at April 6, 2005 10:36 AM
No freedom of conscience exists in Islam. Someone who leaves Islam is a traitor, a deserter from the Army of Islam. If Shirin Ebadi, the Nobel Prize winner who has been such a Defender of the Faith, claiming that the mistreatment of women in Iran has nothing to do with Islam, and whom the real reformers have come to despise (and her Nobel speech was a disgrace), does not take up this case, she will lose the last possiblility of redeeming herself as that "brave fighter against injustice" in Iran that some seem to think she has earned.
She hasn't.
Posted by: Hugh
at April 6, 2005 11:03 AM
You choose to live in a country that
kills people for changing from Islam to any other faith and you have to become a happy martyr to that decision.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer will be ready to greet you.
The New York Times won't be coming to your aid, Pastor. Or The U.N. Or C.A.I.R.
Say your prayers.
And let's all hope that Iran's Islamic maniac leaders fall by the active disgust of its disgruntled young people soon.
Examples like this are only fuel for the bonfire of the ayatollahs' vanity.
Posted by: BigSleep
at April 6, 2005 11:58 AM
Greetings:
There is a recent work from Sheikh Subhy Ahmed Mansour. He is a "different" sort of Muslim scholar. A former professor from Al-Azhar deemed an apostate for his belief in rejecting Sunnah and man-made Muslim tradition. He has also worked and tried to fight for rights of Copts in Egypt. He was exiled from Egypt and now lives in the United States.
I ask before all of you summarily dismiss him as a "muzi" or "nazi", you to read his latest work entitled the "Penalty for Apostacy" http://www.islamicpluralism.org/texts/apostasy.htm, in which he carefully outlines the crime and punishment of riddah, from a refreshing perspective. Please not that while it appears on Schwartz's Centre for Islamic Pluralism, that Schwartz has absolutey nothing to do with the group. He had initially helped Schwartz form it last October, but since then Schwartz has ostracised and ridiculed him for his view that the Islam requires fundamental doctrinal reform.
But note, that despite the effectiveness of this argument, it nonetheless falls on deaf ears. Despite his status and others like him, they have no real credibility among contemporary Muslims. This sheds light on Islam's real prospects for reform, which are virtually nil.
Yours sincerely
Thomas Haidon
Posted by: Thomas
at April 6, 2005 6:42 PM
Well that was interesting, Thomas. Though the text is very long, he does make an interesting point that apostacy can and has been used as a political/religious tool to eliminate the opposition. I think this stands out as a rational rejoinder against the murder of apostates.
Still, why is all this legal construction required against even an obviously immoral act - slaying someone for merely having the temerity to convert?
And, please, I don't run around calling people "muzis", a term I find offensive. Thanks.
Geoff
Posted by: Geoff
at April 6, 2005 9:27 PM
Geoff:
The "muzi" statement was certainly not targeted towards you, just a small minority who use that term. My apologies to you.
You bring up an obvious and important point, that is laregly absent from the debate within Islam. Tariq Ramadan for example has merely called for a moratorium on the killings, not because of the immorality of huddud, but merely because the conditions are not right. We find similar rationale among "moderates" with respect to Jihad and non-Muslims. Some of these self-perceived moderates differ in view on the application and scope of jihad, not because of morality but because of strategy.
Cheers
Thomas
Posted by: Thomas
at April 6, 2005 10:02 PM
Thomas-
I have to concur with Geoff. (on the link)
Why all of the effort at argumentation with a 'faith' that is based on so much irrationality and vendetta? It doesn't rise to the level of being ready for civilized discourse.
Only disdain.
And a request to gain some humility and lower the sword.
Medieval Jewish and Christian scholars tried debating with Muslim clerics during Islam's "Golden Age". They behaved in a very cultured and legalistic manner, used Platonic and Aristotelean and Mosaic and Augustinian rhetorical flourishes, and, in the end, the only result was:
-nothing.
Islam will hear no doubt or instruction.
Until it grows human ears and a human heart, there is no one 'home' to talk to.
I get further making nonsense syllables to my dogs.
(Those 'unclean' creatures of more pure worth
than every gilded mosque on Earth.)
at April 7, 2005 1:12 AM
Kia ora Big Sleep:
Well, Sheikh Mansour really can't win can he? On the one side, he has Muslims who dismiss him and on the other he has non-Muslims who dismiss his efforts as nothing but rubbish as you have.
I for one, will not sweepingly denounce his efforts, something he has dedicated his life to. I applaud his efforts, at least he is writing substance and argument. Afterall, this is what we want to see. We don't want to see meaningless FMCAT or PMU resolutions denouncing terrorism or dhimmitude. We want to see a comprehensive answer to Jihad ideology. This is a start.
I am skeptical as well, but nonetheless ready to at least listen.
Yous sincerely
Thomas
at April 7, 2005 1:35 AM
Kia ora Big Sleep:
Well, Sheikh Mansour really can't win can he? On the one side, he has Muslims who dismiss him and on the other he has non-Muslims who dismiss his efforts as nothing but rubbish.
I for one, am not yet willing to denounce his efforts, something he has dedicated his life to ( I know him personally as a very good man). I applaud his efforts, at least he is writing substance and argument. Afterall, this is what we want to see. We don't want to see meaningless FMCAT or PMU resolutions denouncing terrorism or dhimmitude. We want to see a comprehensive answer to Jihad ideology. This is a start.
I am skeptical as you are, but nonetheless ready to at least listen.
Yous sincerely
Thomas
at April 7, 2005 1:36 AM
My prayers are for Pourmand's continued life and liberty; but I am also mindful that the blood of martyrs is the seed of the church. True, the New York Slimes, Washington Compost, CNN, and the UN will not notice Pourmand if he either dies or lives; but God Almighty most certainly will--and His Word penetrates to the deepest recesses of human souls; while His justice is perfect. Paul tells Christians to leave room for divine vengeance; and this divine judgment against all who suppress the truth or assault the Bride of Christ is far more terrible than all the military might of the entire world combined. The hard ground of the Islamic world is already beginning to crack in ways that were all but inconceivable a scant thirty years ago.
Jesus Christ is risen.
Muhammad is a pile of dust in a Medinan grave (and even Muslims admit as much) awaiting the resurrection and last judgment along with all of the rest of us sinners.
Posted by: Kepha
at April 7, 2005 6:03 AM
Arrgggh. This is a prime example of why religion has no place in public or political life. It should be a private thing. It shouldn’t be anyone else’s business but your own and it shouldn’t be paraded around where others are unwittingly subjected to it either. Like the vote and your sex life, religion should be a personal, private thing, to be shared with only those you chose to share it with who are willing to participate in the sharing.
Pious rhetoric from Muslims or Christians, or irreverent discourses from the nonreligious concerning the validity or superiority of one set of religious beliefs over another are a waste of time here.
The only approach to take in combating the Jihad is a secular one, not one that debates the spiritual authenticity of one religion over another. Why? Because to do otherwise only compounds the problem with inflammatory rhetoric and runaway emotion concerning supernatural subjects that are as impossible to prove as they are incomprehensible to the uninitiated.
Iran wants to execute Pourmand for a “thought crime” plain and simple. Discuss this in plain unclouded language instead of religious jargon. The religious trappings do nothing but detract from the real and very human aspects of the problem.
Iran is a totalitarian state whose control mechanism is Islam. Islam is just another ideology used to manipulate and control masses of people. Pourmand has committed a thought crime there by bringing in a rival system of thought. There is no invisible spiritual battle here at all. It’s all about controlling what people think so they can control what people do.
f.g.
"If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things." —Descartes
Posted by: f.g.
at April 7, 2005 10:04 AM
Here, for those who read French, is an attempt that is less successful, I think, in coming clean about Islam than what Thomas Haidon has linked to above by Mansour. And Mr. Haidon should be thanked for his observations about Stephen Schwartz, who should not be heading that CIP organization. It should be left to someone who was born into Islam, rather than someone who converted to it as the Positively Last Stop on his Spiritual Search, and whose antics will prevent the organization from being taken seriously or treated with dignity (if, indeed, it deserves it).
The material below comes from Telquel online, connected to the French-language magazine published in Morocco, and aimed at a larger audience of Maghrebins. The material here may be of interest, not because it represents some kind of breakthrough (it doesn't), or because it "offers hope" (it doesn't). But it shows an attempt, or an example, of the kind of grand claims made or implied as people born into Islam flail about, hoping that they can do something to take away the malevolence, the aggression, the inculcated hostility to Infidels, the will to dominance -- or, for some, to make it look as if they are doing something (that is Tariq Ramadan the Sinister). It is impossible to see how this can be achieved, but the last step, as one tries desperately -- for some reason -- not to abandon Islam altogether, but also not to have to dutifully return, sheepishly, to the Muslim fold, one tries and tries and tries to see if only there is some conceivable way to change Islam, to throw Hadith and Sira overboard, and then to pretend that the Qur'an too can be changed -- but knowing that it really can't.
So here's that bit from TelQuel (not the French highfalutin' literary magazine of Julia Kristeva and Tzvetan Todorov, but a mass-market magazine for maghrebins, with a cover emphasis on soccer and Whither Morocco? stories):
A la lumière des sciences sociales modernes, de "nouveaux penseurs" s'essaient à démythifier le Coran. TelQuel les accompagne.
Désacraliser pour mieux comprendre
Le Coran est lu de trois manières différentes. La première, religieuse, liturgique, est comme un baume pour la foi du simple croyant. La deuxième, juridique ou idéologique, prônée par des oulémas traditionnels et par les fondamentalismes de tous poils, impose une interprétation figée et intemporelle, quand elle n’embrigade pas les musulmans passifs. Quant à la troisième, technique, inspirée de toutes les sciences sociales modernes, elle rappelle que le Coran est simplement un texte, qui a sa structure, ses péripéties de genèse et bien d’autres contradictions internes que l’on tait au nom de la sacralité.
Le croyant, en quête de sens, n’ose pas franchir le seuil de la troisième lecture. Les nouveaux penseurs de l’islam, souvent tout aussi croyants, l’y invitent pour l’aider à rectifier des erreurs communes fossilisées avec le temps. Avant le dixième siècle, philosophie aidant, plusieurs interprétations du texte circulaient. Depuis, toute cette panoplie n’a plus eu droit de cité. Or, cette nouvelle élite de savants a le mérite de soustraire le Coran au diktat de la pensée unique et traditionnelle. Pour qu’il cesse d’être une relique et redevienne un texte vivant, à l’image de nos sociétés où il continue d’être déterminant. Parfois même trop.
Un début timide…
(AFP)
Grâce à quelques initiatives privées, un débat s’ouvre (timidement) sur la relecture du Coran. L’état ne cache pas sa volonté d’accompagner l’élan… mais à son rythme.
Imaginez un chercheur marocain de 33 ans multipliant les rencontres publiques pour prouver à ses compatriotes, jusque-là habitués aux soporifiques prêches du vendredi, combien il est salvateur de lire le Coran autrement. Imaginez cet homme, Rachid Benzine, traduire à une élite mal informée ce message fondamental des Nouveaux penseurs de l’islam (Tarik editions,
2004) : l’histoire et la critique littéraire permettent d’appréhender le texte coranique tout-à-fait différemment, sans sacralisation mais avec respect. Imaginez un panel de ces mêmes penseurs, réunis à Casablanca, pour exposer le besoin pressant que nous avons, aujourd’hui, de relire le Coran avec le détachement, la rigueur et la lucidité que procurent les sciences sociales modernes. Cette brèche, enfin ouverte, enchante l’Algérien Mohamed Arkoun, islamologue mondialement reconnu, qui n’a cessé de sillonner les pays musulmans depuis 35 ans pour rappeler une vérité historique : entre le VIIème et le XIIème siècle, soufis, philosophes et autres théologiens dialoguaient librement sur le caractère révélé ou "créé" (c’est-à-dire recomposé par Mohamed) du Coran. Ils polémiquaient sur les variations qui avaient pu altérer le sens de certains versets avant que la grammaire du texte ne soit figée. Ils s’arrêtaient sur des subtilités qui paraîtraient, aujourd’hui, hautement blasphématoires. Cette belle époque s’est achevée en 1017, quand le calife Al Kadir a décidé de mettre à mort quiconque proclamerait que le Coran avait été "créé". "Tout a été clos par décision politique et non à l’issue d’un débat pluriel", déplore Arkoun. A noter, et c’est important, que la porte de l’ijtihad et du débat s’est refermée au Maghreb bien avant qu’elle ne se referme au Machrek. Parce que les fuqaha malékites avaient pris le pouvoir chez nous bien avant de le prendre ailleurs - et ne l’ont plus lâché depuis. Ironie du sort, c’est encore chez nous, dans l’espace maghrébin traditionnellement frileux, que l’échange intellectuel est aujourd’hui relancé.
"Dissocier foi et savoir"
Tous ces événements ne sont pas nés d’une volonté politique concertée. C’est bien avant le 11 septembre 2001 que la fondation saoudienne Abdelaziz avait mis au point la plateforme de la rencontre des "nouveaux penseurs" qui s’est déroulée il y a un mois. Depuis, le climat est beaucoup plus tendu, pour des raisons qu’on imagine. Par souci pédagogique, la fondation, connue pour son autonomie politique, y est allée graduellement. "Les oulémas en premier, les orientalistes ensuite. Il ne nous plus restait que les musulmans qui prônent l’application de la méthode historique. Aujourd’hui, c’est chose faite", explique Mohamed Seghir Janjar, directeur de la fondation et cheville ouvrière du projet. Le fait que le livre de Benzine paraisse au Maroc simultanément permet de donner une visibilité sans précédent à une catégorie d’érudits jusque-là bannis de l’espace public musulman et condamnés, par dépit, à développer leurs thèses originales en Occident. Chacun a son histoire avec le pouvoir de son pays d’origine. Voulant "dissocier foi et savoir", Abdelkrim Soroush a vu sa revue interdite et sa carrière brisée à Téhéran. Réfutant "l’image de Gabriel délivrant les messages de Dieu comme un facteur distribuerait ses lettres", Fazlur Rahman a été appelé à de hautes fonctions au Pakistan… avant de se rendre compte qu’il ne s’agissait que d’un moyen pour le faire taire. Défendant "une approche littéraire du texte coranique, comme tout autre texte écrit en arabe", Nasr Hamed Abou Zeïd a dû s’exiler en Hollande pour fuir le terrorisme intellectuel en Egypte. Benzine, comme la tunisienne Olfa Youssef, représentent la nouvelle génération de chercheurs, pleins d’espoirs mais suffisamment échaudés pour rester prudents. "Lorsqu’on montre que le potentiel de signification du Coran est inépuisable, on le protége mieux que les orthodoxes qui s’en servent comme d'une arme idéologique". Voilà comment Benzine, lui-même croyant mais non crédule, défend la justesse de ces approches.
Au Maroc, son pays d’origine, il a trouvé une écoute inespérée. Les "hommes de religion" du roi Mohammed VI ont pris le temps d’apprécier la démarche de cette école de pensée, dont Benzine se fait le plus habile médiateur. Le ministre des Affaires islamiques, Ahmed Toufiq, très sensible à la pluralité de pensée, a apprécié, à l’issue d’un long échange, "l’honnêteté de Benzine". Au sein de ce même ministère, garant d’un islam traditionnel légitimant le pouvoir d’Amir Al Mouminine, ce grand responsable craint que les nouveaux penseurs ne "prennent la posture de donneurs de leçons". Le projet d’organiser des séminaires de sciences sociales en faveur des oulémas n’en est pas moins, aujourd’hui, sur l’agenda de Toufiq. Quant au conseiller royal Mohamed Moatassim, qui a rencontré le duo Olfa Youssef / Rachid Benzine en compagnie de membres du collectif modernité et démocratie, il est désormais favorable à la création d’un comité qui irait éclairer la lanterne des oulémas - ou au moins amorcer le dialogue avec eux. Il ne s’agit là que de prémices, mais certains optimistes commencent à parler d’exception marocaine. Il est vrai que la Tunisie nous a précédés, par la création d’une branche d’islamologie appliquée. Animée par l’éminent Abdelmajid Charfi, elle relit le Coran avec les outils de la linguistique et permet d’opérer des réformes très audacieuses dans le domaine du statut de la famille. Il est tout aussi vrai que les chiites d’Iran ont une tradition de Haouzat (cercles) où les oulémas reçoivent une formation philosophique et littéraire…
"L’ignorance institutionnalisée"
Nos oulémas sunnites et malékites sont indiscutablement loin du compte, toujours enfermés dans des références juridiques figées par le temps. Mais ce vent nouveau qui souffle, apporté par des penseurs formés ailleurs, montre au moins qu’au Maroc "les espaces de liberté d’expression s’élargissent et touchent le religieux", comme le dit Janjar. Au Machrek, ces espaces sont plus réduits. Attendue depuis un siècle, la traduction arabe de L’histoire des Corans (Geschichte des Corans), du philologue allemand Theodor Noëldeke, vient de paraître au Liban… mais n’est toujours pas autorisée à la vente dans le monde arabe. "Aucun érudit arabe n’a jamais pensé à traduire cet ouvrage, c’est la fondation allemande Konrad Adenauer qui en a pris l’initiative", note amèrement Arkoun. L’événement est pourtant de taille : ce livre est l’un des très rares qui s’attachent à démontrer scientifiquement l’authenticité des récits coraniques, en se basant sur des documents historiques. Pourtant, presque personne n’en parle.
Le Maroc, même si le débat y est amorcé, ne deviendra pas subitement le chef de file des pays éclairés. "L’élite n’est pas vraiment intéressée", déplore Janjar. Comme partout ailleurs, "l’ignorance est institutionnalisée à l’école", ajoute Arkoun. Qui pense aujourd’hui à lire Ibn Hazm, penseur éclairé banni de notre répertoire ? Quasiment personne. Qui s’intéresse au soufisme et cherche à aborder le Coran plus sous l’angle du plaisir que sous celui des contraintes ? Tout juste une poignée de doux illuminés. Qui relit Ibn Rochd dans le fond, pour redécouvrir à quel point la philosophie a été salutaire à l’islam ? Quelques savants isolés, qui n’en transmettent rien au public.
C’est là qu’intervient le rôle des nouveaux penseurs. "Si nous parvenons à recréer notre tradition escamotée et à jeter les bases d’une modernité construite de l’intérieur et non greffée de l’extérieur, nous aurons réussi", estime Benzine. Soroush, actuellement sur le projet d’un nouvel ouvrage qui tente de réinventer le Moâtazilisme, école de raison par excellence, pense à son tour que "si nous parvenons à redonner à la philosophie sa place dans la cité, nous mettrons les musulmans à l’abri des démagogues et autres systèmes politiques qui instrumentalisent la religion". "Je suis quand même heureux que nous commencions à réaliser à quel point nous sommes en retard sur nos ancêtres", soupire Arkoun. Et d’ajouter : "mais je refuse d’en rester là. Nous devons transgresser la clôture dogmatique dans laquelle nos sociétés sont enfermées, rouvrir le texte coranique à l’interprétation et au débat, déplacer l’intérêt de la théologie à la linguistique, migrer des sciences traditionnelles vers les sciences modernes, déplacer notre regard vers d’autres religions. Et enfin, dépasser notre misère intellectuelle et utiliser notre histoire comme tremplin pour mieux nous positionner dans le monde".
Tout commence par le Coran. Le Pakistanais Fazlur Rahman a été l’un des premiers à s’appuyer sur la philosophie pour le penser dans sa globalité plutôt que d’en faire une lecture fragmentaire, verset par verset. Chez les arabophones, Abou Zeïd a aussi fait œuvre de précurseur (parmi les contemporains du moins), en s’intéressant au Coran tel que le perçoivent ses lecteurs, et non pas tel que l’a entendu son émetteur (Dieu, à travers le prophète). Autre contemporain, l’historien et théologien égyptien Abdelkrim Khalil s’est attaché à sonder le contexte sociologique de la révélation pour mieux comprendre le texte coranique. D’autres anthropologues, enfin, posent une question brûlante : que s’est-il passé, pendant les quinze ans qui ont séparé la révélation orale au prophète et la rédaction du premier Coran ? Se pourrait-il que le texte écrit ne corresponde pas totalement au texte révélé ?
Les conservateurs inquiets
Tout cela, forcément, inquiète les conservateurs. Le Coran, socle intangible du dogme, ne saurait être "relu", ni "repensé". Ruade d’Arkoun : "aujourd’hui, ce discours est brandi comme une menace. Il est indispensable que l’Etat valorise l’anthropologie. C’est le meilleur moyen de remonter à l’origine du mal, c’est-à-dire au moment où le dogme a été figé". Loin d’être aussi téméraires, nos officiels se contentent aujourd’hui de panser les plaies, en s’efforçant de redonner plus de place à la spiritualité. "La radio coranique nous permet de contrer les prêches sauvages et dangereux qui circulent sous forme de cassettes, et qu’on entend souvent dans les taxis", explique ce responsable. Les officiels parent donc au plus urgent, sans pour autant fournir aux Marocains les armes intellectuelles qui leur permettraient de se prémunir tous seuls du fanatisme. Hassan II, un temps, avait eu des velléités d’introduire les sciences sociales au programme de l’école de théologie Dar Al Hadith al Hassani. "Finalement, le roi a pris peur. Espérons que son fils aura plus de courage politique", soupire ce connaisseur du dossier. Un projet d’institut "moderne" de théologie serait, paraît-il, dans les cartons, et n’attendrait qu’un feu vert royal…
Ces temps-ci, le Coran est en train de redevenir un objet de curiosité intellectuelle. En attendant que l’école s’y mette, c’est aux médias qu’il échoit aujourd’hui de nourrir l’intérêt, pour que la flamme ne s’éteigne pas. Prions.
La révélation
“Ainsi t’avons-Nous révélé un Esprit, venant de Notre sphère, quand tu ne savais ce qu’est le Livre, non plus que la foi. Mais Nous en fîmes une lumière, dont Nous guidons qui Nous voulons d’entre Nos adorateurs – même si c’est toi qui effectivement guides – sur une voie de rectitude” Choura, 52
Le sens du mot "révélation" (wahye) diverge selon les écoles de pensée. Pour les soufis, c’est d’abord une "illumination" et une sensation de plaisir, éprouvée par le prophète au moment du tanzil (la "descente" de la parole divine). Pour les moâtazilites, il y a deux niveaux : l’immensité du discours divin non dévoilé et sa partie manifeste, révélée à Mohamed. Pour plusieurs penseurs modernes, "la parole de Dieu" est un "souffle céleste verbalisé par le prophète". L’image de Gabriel délivrant son message à Mohamed comme "un facteur remettrait ses lettres" est réfutée par les philosophes. Durant les vingt années (612 – 632) qu’a duré la révélation, la transmission se faisait oralement, sans traces écrites. Plusieurs philologues (spécialistes des documents anciens) se demandent toujours s’il n’y a pas eu des pertes de discours pendant ces vingt ans. La transcription écrite a commencé en 632, et duré 15 ans. On continue aujourd’hui à se demander si pendant ces 35 ans, rien ne s’est perdu…
D'après Mohamed Arkoun, Lectures du Coran ; Alif (Tunis, 1990) et Fazlur Rahman, Major themes of the Qur’an ; Bibliotheca islamica (Chicago, 1980)
Mohamed illettré ?
Avec Mohamed Arkoun, historien et anthropologue
“Lui qui a envoyé au sein des incultes un Envoyé des leurs pour leur réciter Ses signes…” Al joumouâ, 2
En donnant au mot "oummi" la signification unique de "illettré" ou "inculte", la propagande musulmane a voulu définitivement exclure l’idée d’un Coran inventé par le prophète. Or, le terme "oummi" veut également dire "membre d’un peuple gentil" (si !). Pris sous cet angle, cela voudrait dire que Dieu invitait Mohamed à découvrir quelque chose de nouveau : un discours à la structure prophétique, différent du discours poétique qui lui était familier. L’anthropologie nous a appris, depuis, qu’un homme qui ne sait pas lire n'est pas forcément dénué de culture. Encore moins Mohamed, dans ce cas.
La femme
Petit exercice d’exégèse moderne, pour libérer les musulmanes.
Avec Olfa Youssef, linguiste spécialiste en islamologie appliquée
Le voile
“Dis aux croyantes de baisser les yeux et de contenir leur sexe ; de ne pas faire montre de leurs agréments, sauf ce qui en émerge, de rabattre leur fichu sur les échancrures de leur vêtement. Elles ne laisseront voir leurs agréments qu’à leur mari…” Ennour, 31
“Prophète, dis à tes épouses, à tes filles, aux femmes des croyants de revêtir leurs mantes : sûr moyen d’être reconnues (pour des dames) et d’échapper à toute offense”. Al Ahzab, 59
Le premier sens du mot "voile" ne renvoie pas à un habit, mais à une tenture destinée à voiler la vue. Historiquement, ce "voile"-là était fait pour protéger les femmes du prophète. Contre quoi ? Pendant la Jahiliyya, expliquent Boukhari et Tabari, les mâles, surtout les impies, avaient très peu de respect pour l’autre sexe. Il s’agissait donc de soustraire les femmes à leur regard. Le verset 59 de la sourate Al Ahzab appelle les "femmes des croyants", en général, à se prémunir aussi par le même type de "voile". Mais les commentateurs précisent que seules les femmes libres étaient concernées – autrement dit, pas les esclaves. Ayant une valeur marchande, ces femmes là devaient être visibles pour être valorisées. Il est même arrivé à Omar Ibn Khattab de gifler une esclave qui a imité sa maîtresse (Sahih al Boukhari, tome 3, p.99). Concernant le verset 31 de la sourate Ennour, les commentateurs ont divergé sur le sens du mot "zina" (agréments). Quant à l’expression, "rabattre leur fichu sur les échancrures", les exégètes divergent sur son explication. En plus, il y a cet autre verset (Ennour, 60) qui dispense les femmes ménopausées de se couvrir. Autrement dit, il faut être apte à la procréation pour devoir se préserver visuellement des hommes. Bref, on est loin du voile d’aujourd’hui que l’interprétation fondamentaliste veut imposer comme sixième pilier de l’islam.
La polygamie
“Si vous craignez de n’être pas équitables en matière d’orphelins… alors épousez ce qui vous plaira d’entre les femmes, par deux, ou trois, ou quatre. Mais si vous craignez de n’être pas justes, alors seulement une…” Annissae, 3
Parmi les exégètes défenseurs de la polygamie, il y en a qui font l’addition 2+3+4… et autorisent l’homme à avoir 9 épouses, à l’instar du prophète ! On note, dans le verset coranique concerné, que l’autorisation est subordonnée à "l’équité en matière d’orphelins". Quel rapport ? Il s’agirait en faite des "orphelines". Pendant la période anté-islamique, les hommes se mariaient fréquemment avec celles dont ils étaient tuteurs, pour subtiliser leurs biens. L’islam aurait cherché à les en dissuader en les autorisant à aller voir ailleurs. Mais le Coran relève l’injustice de la démarche, en stipulant dans un autre verset "vous ne pourrez être justes envers vos femmes même si vous y veillez" (Annisae, 129). Cela n’a pas suffi aux exégètes, soucieux de préserver une pratique très répandue…
Le divorce
“Il ne vous est permis de rien récupérer sur elles de vos dons, à moins que tous deux ne craignent de ne pas satisfaire aux normes expresses de Dieu”. Al Baqara, 229
Le Coran octroie aussi à la femme le droit de demander le divorce. Lorsque la femme d’un compagnon du prophète, Thabet Ibn Qaïs, est allée avouer à Mohamed qu’elle ne tolérait plus sa vie à deux, le prophète lui a tout simplement demandé (en présence du rapporteur Boukhari) si elle acceptait de lui rendre son jardin. Il n’a même pas demandé de témoin. Cette facilité dans la procédure, nos sociétés patriarcales ont du mal à la préserver. Ils ont aussi du mal à préciser au mari qu’il n’a aucun droit d’exiger de son ex-épouse un remboursement sur les biens qu’il a mis à sa disposition au cours du mariage.
L’héritage
“En cas de succession d’un homme ou d’une femme dépourvus de successibles directs, mais qui ait un frère ou une sœur, à chacun de ces deux derniers reviendra un sixième ; s’ils sont davantage, ils se partageront un tiers, déduction faite de chose testée ou due, sauf en cas de lésion…” Annisae, 12
Ce verset a énormément intéressé les analystes modernes. Le sens du mot "Kalala" a longtemps été considéré par Omar Ibn Khattab comme un "mystère de Dieu" (aujourd’hui, on sait que cela signifie "être dépourvu de succession directe"). Quant au sens du verset, il est resté équivoque, tant que la grammaire (shakl) du Coran n’était pas fixée. Entre "yourithou" (il hérite) et "yourathou" (on hérite de lui), le verset pouvait avoir deux significations… exactement contraires ! Un autre verset, "il vous est prescrit, quand la mort se présente à l’un de vous et qu’il laisse du bien, de tester en faveur de ses père et mère et de ses plus proches" (Al Baqara, 180), nous apprend, contrairement à ce que prétendent les docteurs de la Loi, que les musulmans peuvent laisser un testament. Bon à savoir, quand même.
D’après Mohamed Arkoun, Lectures du Coran ; Alif (Tunis, 1990)
Le Texte et son contexte
Relire les versets coraniques en sachant les anecdotes qui les ont inspirés nous replace dans une perspective… disons différente.
Dans son Tafsir (vol II, p. 49), le grand exégète Al Maraghi rapporte l’histoire suivante : le prophète, ainsi que Aïcha et plusieurs hommes, faisaient route sur Médine. Son collier s’étant rompu, l’épouse du prophète fit stopper la caravane pour qu’on lui retrouve ses perles, qui avaient roulé sur le sol. Profitant de cette interruption, Mohamed s’endormit sur les genoux de sa femme, descendue de chameau. Quand il se réveilla, l’heure de la prière était arrivée. Mais la caravane était en plein désert, et il n’y avait pas d’eau. Comment prier sans ablutions ? C’est à ce moment précis que Dieu inspira à Mohamed le verset suivant : "si vous êtes (…) en voyage (…) et ne trouvez pas d’eau, utilisez en substitution un sol sain" (Al ma’ida, 6). Tout le monde fit donc ses ablutions avec des poignées de terre et personne ne rata la prière. La notion de tayammoum (substitution) était née. Sur le coup, rapporte Al Maraghi, cela arrangeait tellement bien les choses que Oussayid Ibn Haïdar, un des hommes de la caravane, lança à l’épouse du prophète d’un ton moqueur : "Que dieu te bénisse, Aïcha ! A chaque fois qu’un désagrément t’arrive, Dieu tout-puissant le transforme en soulagement pour les musulmans" !
Des anecdotes comme celles-là, on en retrouve aussi par centaines chez Tabari et nombre d’autres exégètes du Coran. On appelle cela Asbab ennouzoul ou "les raisons de la descente" (des versets dans l’esprit du prophète, s’entend). Principe : très souvent, quand Mohamed annonçait à ses fidèles que Dieu lui avait inspiré un nouveau verset coranique, c’était en réaction à un évènement survenu juste avant. Le prophète voulant ainsi multiplier les épouses, un verset coranique était opportunément "descendu" pour l’autoriser à le faire, stipulant "Tu ajournes celles d’entre elles qu’il te plaît ; tu fais accueil à celles qu’il te plaît" (Al Ahzab, 51). Réaction de Aïcha, jalouse : "inni ara rabbaka youssariôu laka fi hawak" ("je vois que ton Dieu est empressé pour satisfaire tes désirs" – rapporté par Boukhari, citant Abou Oussama, citant Hicham Ibn âroua – Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol III, p. 501)…
Conclusion : si des prescriptions coraniques répondent à des micro-évènements datant de 14 siècles, pourquoi resteraient-elles valables aujourd’hui ? Parce qu’on a la foi ? A chacun d’estimer si c’est une raison suffisante.
“Le Coran n’est pas un supermarché”
Si on le soumet à une analyse rhétorique, le texte sacré n’a de sens que dans sa globalité.
En extraire des passages isolés revient à l’utiliser pour valider un discours… bien humain.
Le Coran se présente comme une construction complexe qui déroute plus d’un lecteur. Parce que sa révélation s’est déroulée sur plus d’une vingtaine d’années (610-632), mettant ensemble parfois, dans de mêmes sourates, des versets qui ont été délivrés à des périodes et situations différentes, le Coran ne laisse pas facilement voir sa structure interne. Les savants orientalistes européens des XIXème et XXème siècles ont souvent affirmé que le texte coranique leur paraissait "décousu" et sans cohérence littéraire… Leur approche s’explique tout particulièrement par le fait que la pensée occidentale est marquée par la rhétorique grecque, construite sur la base de ces trois étapes : une introduction, un développement et une conclusion. Or, d’autres modes de "construction" et d’ordonnancement existent, dont l'étude pourrait être une clé d’entrée pour renouveler notre lecture du Coran. Tout particulièrement l’analyse rhétorique sémitique, qui se développe depuis une quinzaine d’années.
La "spécificité" de cette rhétorique est d’abord d’être commune aux différentes cultures sémitiques, dont la culture arabe est partie intégrante. Disons, rapidement, que cette approche – qui n’exclut pas les autres – se distingue par un jeu complexe de symétries, et cela à différents niveaux du texte. Analyser le Coran à l’aune de la rhétorique sémitique se révèle une méthode très fructueuse pour l’exégèse car elle nous permet de passer de l’interprétation éclatée du texte coranique, verset par verset, à l’interprétation de chaque sourate qui elle-même n’est qu’une étape d’un ensemble plus vaste. Trop souvent, en effet, face à un texte comme le texte coranique, on peut être tenté de prendre tel ou tel verset, tel ou tel passage, sans se soucier de ce qui le précède ou le suit, sans se préoccuper de savoir si, en isolant le membre de phrase qui nous intéresse sur le moment, on ne trahit pas l’ensemble.
Ainsi du passage coranique suivant : "Et c’est certainement un Coran noble / un livre bien gardé / Que seuls les purifiés touchent / C’est une révélation de la part du Seigneur de l’univers" (Al Waqiâ, 77 à 80). Une lecture fréquente de ce verset retient surtout l'appel à se purifier rituellement quand on touche le Coran. Mais quand on analyse la structure de la sourate 56, et que l'on se souvient du contexte de sa délivrance (la rivalité du prophète et des devins) on découvre qu’il était plutôt question d'authentifier la révélation faite à Mohamed par l'intermédiaire d'"anges purs". Autrement dit : il s’agit bien d’une prophétie, et non de divination. On est loin des ablutions obligatoires avant de toucher le livre sacré ! Voilà comment, en prenant le texte dans sa globalité grâce à l’analyse rhétorique sémitique, on découvre des sens autres que le sens commun. En effet, un verset n’a de sens que par rapport à la structure dans laquelle il s’insère. Cette structure est la porte du sens, et c’est donc en retrouvant la structure de l’ensemble des sourates que l’on pourra renouveler notre lecture du Coran.
L’analyse rhétorique nous apprend finalement à respecter le texte coranique qui n’est pas un "supermarché" où chacun va chercher ce dont il a besoin pour valider son discours. Les versets ne sont pas des proverbes !
Rachid Benzine
Les nouveaux penseurs de l’islam
Mohammed Arkoun
Algérien, mariant les disciplines, il considère qu’il est temps de démythifier le texte sacré en s’appuyant sur les acquis de l’herméneutique, la science des interprétations.
Abdulkarim Khalil
égyptien, décédé en 2002, il a creusé dans le sillon de Rodinson, en replaçant le Coran dans son contexte historique – la foi en plus, puisqu’il était âlem.
Nasr Hamid Abou Zeid
Parce que cet égyptien prônait une lecture historique et critique du Coran, les obscurantistes "l’ont divorcé" de sa femme, avant de le pousser à s’exiler.
Moncef Benabdejalil
Linguiste tunisien, il cherche à savoir s’il y a eu des versions successives du Coran avant qu’il ne soit établi en mushaf par le Calife Othmane.
Oulfa Youssef
Mariant linguistique et psychologie, cette Tunisienne relit le Coran et démontre qu’en guise de "vérité", les docteurs de la Loi n’affirment souvent que leur opinion personnelle.
Abdoulkarim Soroush
Iranien, enseignant respecté à Harvard, il pousse les oulémas à s’ouvrir sur d’autres sciences et veut substituer la "démocratie religieuse" au "despotisme religieux"
Fazlur Rahman
Pakistanais, mort en 1988, il ne considérait pas le Coran comme la parole incréée de Dieu, mais comme "une formulation des intentions de Dieu par le Prophète Mohamed".
Abdou Filali Ansary
Marocain, installé à Londres, il ne cesse de marteler que laïcité et islam sont compatibles, lecture historique à l’appui.
Abdelmajid Charfi
Tunisien, il revient au message originel, le retravaille et en dégage un sens nouveau, plus à même de convenir aux musulmans désirant vivre pleinement la modernité.
© 2004 TelQuel Magazine. Maroc. Tous droits résérvés
at April 7, 2005 4:13 PM
Here is the English translation of the above French article created using Firefox's translation plug-in.
f.g.
(AFP)
Thanks to some private initiatives, a debate opens (timidly) on the second reading of Coran. The state does not hide its will to accompany the dash... but at its rate/rhythm.
Imagine 33 years a Moroccan researcher multiplying the public meetings to prove to its compatriots, up to that point accustomed to the soporific sermons of Friday, how much it is saving of reading Coran differently. Imagine this man, Rachid Benzine, to translate with a badly informed elite this fundamental message of the New thinkers of Islam (Tarik editions,
2004): the history and literary criticism make it possible to apprehend the Koranic text completely differently, without sacralization but with respect. Imagine a panel of these same thinkers, at this meeting in Casablanca, to expose the pressing need which we have, today, to read again Coran with the detachment, the rigour and clearness that get modern social sciences. This breach, finally opened, enchants the Algerian Mohamed Arkoun, islamologist universally recognized, who has not ceased furrowing the Moslem countries for 35 years to point out a historical truth: between VIIème and XIIème century, soufis, philosophers and other theologists dialogued freely on the character revealed or "created" (i.e. recomposed by Mohamed) of Coran. They polemized on the variations which had been able to deteriorate the direction of certain verses before the grammar of the text is not fixed. They stopped on subtleties which would appear, today, highly blasphématoires. This beautiful time was completed in 1017, when the caliph Al Kadir decided to put at dead whoever would proclaim that Coran "had been created". "All was closed by political decision and not at the end of a plural debate", Arkoun regrets. To note, and it is important, which the door of the ijtihad and the debate was closed again in the Maghreb well before it is not closed again in Machrek. Because the fuqaha malékites had seized the power on our premises well before taking it elsewhere - and released it since more. Irony of the fate, it is still on our premises, in traditionally frileux Maghrebian space, that the intellectual exchange is started again today.
"To dissociate faith and know"
All these events were not born from a concerted political good-will. It is well before September 11 2001 that the Saoudi foundation Abdelaziz had developed the platform of the meeting of the "new thinkers" which proceeded one month ago. Since, the climate is tended much more, for reasons which one imagines. By the teaching, foundation, known concern for its political autonomy, went there gradually. "oulémas in first, orientalists then. There us more remained only the Moslems who preach the application of the historical method. Today, it is made thing ", explains Mohamed Seghir Janjar, director of the foundation and ankle working project. The fact that the Benzine book appears in Morocco simultaneously makes it possible to give a visibility without precedent to a category of scholars up to that point banished of Moslem public space and condemned, by spite, to develop their original theses in Occident. Each one has its history with the capacity of its country of origin. Wanting "to dissociate faith and know", Abdelkrim Soroush saw its prohibited review and its career broken in Teheran. Refuting "the image of Gabriel delivering the messages of God as a factor would distribute his letters", Fazlur Rahman was destined for high positions in Pakistan... before realizing that it was not absolutely necessary of one means to make it conceal. Defending "a literary approach of the Koranic text, like any other text written in Arabic", Nasr Hamed Abou Zeïd had to be exiled in Holland to flee intellectual terrorism in Egypt. Benzine, like Tunisian Olfa Youssef, represent rising generation of researchers, full with hopes but sufficiently scalded to remain careful. "When it is shown that the potential of significance of Coran is inexhaustible, one it protége better than the orthodoxe ones which makes use of it as of an ideological weapon". Here is how Benzine, itself believing but noncredulous, defends the accuracy of these approaches.
In Morocco, its country of origin, it found a listening unhoped-for. The "men of religion" of king Mohammed VI took time to appreciate the step of this school of thought, whose Benzine is made the most skilful mediator. The Minister for the Islamic Businesses, Ahmed Toufiq, very sensitive to the plurality of thought, appreciated, at the end of a long exchange, "the Benzine honesty". Within this same ministry, guarantor of a traditional Islam legitimating the capacity of Amir Al Mouminine, this large person in charge fears that the new thinkers "do not take the posture of donors of lessons". The project to organize seminars of social sciences in favour of the oulémas is not less, today, on the diary of Toufiq. As to the royal adviser Mohamed Moatassim, who met the duet Olfa Youssef/Rachid Benzine in company of members of the collective modernity and democracy, it favours from now on the establishment of a committee which would light the lantern of the oulémas - or to less starting the dialogue with them. It is only first steps, but certain optimists start to speak about Moroccan exception. It is true that Tunisia preceded us, by the creation of a branch of islamology applied. Animated by eminent Abdelmajid Charfi, it reads again Coran with the tools of linguistics and makes it possible to operate very daring reforms in the field of the statute of the family. It is quite as true as the Shiites of Iran have a tradition of Haouzat (circles) where the oulémas receive a philosophical and literary formation...
"institutionalized ignorance"
Our oulémas sunnites and malékites indisputably far from the account, are always locked up in legal references solidified by time. But this new wind which blows, brought by thinkers trained elsewhere, shows at least that in Morocco "spaces of freedom of expression widen and touch the monk", like says it Janjar. In Machrek, these spaces are more reduced. Waited for one century, the Arab translation of the history of Corans (Geschichte of Corans), from the German philologist Theodor Noëldeke, has come to appear in Lebanon... but is still not authorized with the sale in the Arab world. "No Arab scholar never thought of translating this work, it is the German foundation Konrad Adenauer which in took the initiative", Arkoun notes bitterly. The event is however of size: this book is one of very rare which attempts to show the authenticity of the Koranic accounts scientifically, while being based on historical documents. However, almost nobody speaks about it.
Morocco, even if the debate is started there, will not become suddenly the leader of the enlightened countries. "the elite is not really interested", deplores Janjar. As everywhere else, "ignorance is institutionalized at the school", adds Arkoun. Who thinks today of reading Ibn Hazm, thinker enlightened outlaw of our repertory? Almost nobody. Who is interested in the Sufism and seeks to approach Coran more under the angle of the pleasure that under that of the constraints? Just a handle the soft one illuminated. Who reads again Ibn Rochd in the content, to rediscover at which point philosophy was salutary with Islam? Some isolated scientists, who do not transmit anything of it to the public.
It is there that the role of the new thinkers intervenes. "If we manage to recreate our retracted tradition and to provide the foundations of a built of the interior and not grafted modernity outside, we will have succeeded", estimates Benzine. Soroush, currently on the project of a new work which tries to reinvent Moâtazilisme, school of reason par excellence, thinks in its turn which "if we manage to give again with philosophy its place in the city, we will put the Moslems at the shelter of the demagogues and other political systems which instrumentalisent the religion". "I am nevertheless happy that we start to realize at which point we are late on our ancestors", Arkoun sighs. And to add: "but I refuse to remain about it there. We must transgress the dogmatic fence in which our companies are locked up, to reopen the Koranic text with interpretation and the debate, to move the interest of theology to linguistics, to migrate of traditional sciences towards modern sciences, to move our glance towards other religions. And finally, to exceed our intellectual misery and to use our history like springboard for better positioning us in the world ".
All starts with Coran. The Pakistani Fazlur Rahman was one of the first to be based on philosophy to rather think it as a whole than to make a fragmentary reading of it, verse by verse. In the Arabic-speaking people, Abou Zeïd also made work of precursor (among the contemporaries at least), while being interested in Coran such as its readers perceive it, and not such as heard its transmitter (God, through the prophet). Another contemporary, the historian and Egyptian theologist Abdelkrim Khalil endeavoured to probe the sociological context of the revelation for better including/understanding the Koranic text. Other anthropologists, finally, put an extreme question: what did it occur, during the fifteen years which separated the oral revelation with the prophet and the drafting from first Coran? Could it be that the written text does not correspond completely to the revealed text?
Anxious conservatives
All that, inevitably, worries the conservatives. Coran, base intangible of the dogma, could not "be read again", nor "reconsidered". Kick of Arkoun: "today, this speech is held up like a threat. It is essential that the State develops anthropology. It is the best means of going up at the origin of the evil, i.e. at the moment when the dogma was fixed ". Far from being also bold, our official is satisfied today to bandage the wounds, while endeavouring to give again more place with spirituality. "the Koranic radio enables us to counter the wild and dangerous sermons which circulate in the form of cassettes, and which one often hears in the taxis", explains this person in charge. Official the relative thus with most urgent, without providing to the Morrocans the intellectual weapons which would enable them to secure all only fanaticism. Hassan II, a time, had had inclinations to introduce social sciences with the program of the school of theology Dar Al Hadith Al Hassani. "Finally, the king took fear. Let us hope that his/her son will have more political courage ", sighs this expert of the file. A "modern" project of institute of theology would be, appears it, in the paperboards, and would await only one royal green light...
These times, Coran is becoming again an object of intellectual curiosity. While waiting for that the school is put at it, it is with the media that it falls today to nourish the interest, so that the flame does not die out prion.
The revelation
"Thus we revealed you a Spirit, coming from Our sphere, when you did not know what is the Book, either that faith. But Us of made light, We guide who We want among Our admirers - even if it is you who indeed guides - on a way of straightness "Choura, 52
The direction of the word "revelation" (wahye) diverges according to schools of thought's. For the soufis, it is initially a "illumination" and a feeling of pleasure, tested by the prophet at the time of the tanzil ("descent" of the divine word). For the moâtazilites, there are two levels: the vastness of the divine speech not revealed and its manifest part, revealed with Mohamed. For several modern thinkers, "the word of God" is a "celestial breath charged by the prophet". The image of Gabriel delivering its message with Mohamed as "a factor would give its letters" is refuted by the philosophers. During the twenty years (612 - 632) which lasted the revelation, transmission was done orally, without hard copies. Several philologists (specialists in the old documents) always wonder if there no were losses of speech during these twenty years. The written transcription started into 632, and lasted 15 years. One continues today to wonder whether during these 35 years, nothing did not lose oneself...
According to Mohamed Arkoun, Readings of Coran; Alif (Tunis, 1990) and Fazlur Rahman, Major topics of the Qur' year; Bibliotheca islamica (Chicago, 1980)
Illiterate Mohamed?
With Mohamed Arkoun, historian and anthropologist
"Him which sent uncultivated to Envoy theirs to recite them Its signs..." Al joumouâ, 2
By giving to the word "oummi" the single significance of "illiterate" or "uncultivated", Moslem propaganda definitively wanted to exclude the idea from Coran invented by the prophet. However, the term "oummi" wants to also say "member of nice people" (if!). Taken under this angle, that would like to say that God invited Mohamed to discover something again: a speech with the prophetic structure, different from the poetic speech which was familiar for him. Anthropology taught us, since, that a man who cannot read is not inevitably stripped of culture. Even less Mohamed, in this case.
The woman
Small exercise of modern interpretation, to release the Moslem women.
With Olfa Youssef, linguist specialist in islamology applied
The veil
"Say to believing to lower the eyes and to contain their sex; not to make watch of their approvals, except what emerges from it, to fold back their rotten on the notches of their clothing. They will let see their approvals only with their husband... " Ennour, 31
"Prophet, say to your wives, to your daughters, to the women of believing to cover their mantes: sure means of being recognized (for injuries) and to escape from any offence ". Al Ahzab, 59
The first direction of the word "veil" does not return to a dress, but to a hanging intended to veil the sight. Historically, this "voile"-là was made to protect the women from the prophet. Against what? During Jahiliyya, explain Boukhari and Tabari, the males, especially the irreligious people, had very little respect for the other sex. It was thus a question of withdrawing the women from their glance. Verse 59 of sourate Al Ahzab invites the "women of believing", in general, to be also secured by the same type of "veil". But the commentators specify that only the free women were concerned - in other words, not the slaves. Having a commercial value, these women there were to be visible to be developed. It even sometimes happened to Omar Ibn Khattab to slap a slave who imitated his mistress (Sahih Al Boukhari, volume 3, p.99). Concerning verse 31 of the sourate Ennour, the commentators diverged on the direction from the word "zina" (approvals). As for the expression, "to fold back their rotten on the notches", the exégètes diverge on its explanation. Moreover, there is this other verse (Ennour, 60) which exempts the women ménopausées to cover itself. In other words, it is necessary to be suited to procreation to have to preserve men visually. In short, one is far from the veil from today that fundamentalist interpretation wants to impose like sixth pillar of Islam.
Polygamy
"If you then fear not to be not equitable as regards orphans... marry what you will like among the women, by two, or three, or four. But if you fear not to be not right, then only one... " Annissae, 3
Among the exégètes defenders of polygamy, there are some who make addition 2+3+4... and authorize the man to have 9 wives, following the example prophet! It is noted, in the Koranic verse concerned, that the authorization is subordinated to "equity as regards orphans". Which report/ratio? It would act in made the "orphan ones". For the ante-Islamic period, the men frequently married with those of which they were tutors, to subtilize their goods. Islam would have sought with dissuading some by authorizing them to go to see elsewhere. But Coran raises the injustice of the step, by stipulating in another verse "you could not be right towards your wives even if you take care of it" (Annisae, 129). That was not enough with the exégètes, anxious to preserve a very widespread practice...
Divorce
"It to you is not allowed anything to recover on them your gifts, unless both do not fear not to satisfy the standards expresses of God". Al Baqara, 229
Coran also grants the woman the right to require the divorce. When the woman of a companion of the prophet, Thabet Ibn Qaïs, went to acknowledge in Mohamed which it did not tolerate any more her life with two, the prophet quite simply asked him (in the presence of the Boukhari rapporteur) if it agreed to return her garden to him. He did not even ask of witness. This facility in the procedure, our patriarchal companies have evil to preserve it. They have also evil to specify with the husband whom it has no right to require of his ex-wife a refunding on the goods that it placed at his disposal during the marriage.
The heritage
"In the event of succession of a man or a woman deprived of entitled to succeed direct, but who have a brother or a sister, with each one of these two last will return a sixth; if they are more, they will share a third, deduction made of thing tested or which had, except in the event of lesion... " Annisae, 12
This verse enormously interested the modern analysts. The direction of the word "Kalala" was considered a long time by Omar Ibn Khattab a "mystery of God" (today, it is known that that means "being deprived of direct succession"). As for the directions of the verse, there remained ambiguity, as long as the grammar (shakl) of Coran was not fixed. Between "yourithou" (it inherits) and "yourathou" (one inherits him), the verse could have two exactly contrary significances...! Another verse, "it is prescribed to you, when death arises at the one you and that it leaves good, to test in favour of his/her father and mother and from its the closer" (Al Baqara, 180), teaches us, as opposed to what the doctors of the Law claim, that the Moslems can leave a will. Good with knowing, nevertheless.
According to Mohamed Arkoun, Readings of Coran; Alif (Tunis, 1990)
The Text and its context
To read again the Koranic verses by knowing the anecdotes which inspired them replaces us from the point of view... say different.
In its Tafsir (flight II, p. 49), large exégète Al Maraghi brings back the following history: the prophet, like Aïcha and several men, travelled on Médine. Its collar being broken, the wife of the prophet made stop the caravan so that one finds his pearls to him, which had rolled on the ground. Benefitting from this interruption, Mohamed fell asleep on the knees of his wife, descended from camel. When it awoke, the hour of the prayer had arrived. But the caravan was in full desert, and there was no water. How to request without ablutions? They is precise at this time which God inspired in Mohamed the following verse: "if you are (...) travels from there (...) and do not find water, use in substitution a healthy ground" (Al ma' Ida, 6). Everyone thus made its ablutions with handles of ground and nobody missed the prayer. The concept of tayammoum (substitution) had been born. On the blow, brings back Al Maraghi, that arranged the things so much well that Oussayid Ibn Haïdar, one of the men of the caravan, launched to the wife of the prophet of a tone mocker: "That god blesses you, Aïcha! With each time that a nuisance arrives to you, all-powerful God transforms it into relief for the Moslems "!
Anecdotes like these, one also finds some per hundreds at Tabari and a number of others exégètes of Coran. One calls that Asbab ennouzoul or "the reasons of the descent" (of the verses in the spirit of the prophet, gets along). Principle: very often, when Mohamed announced with its faithful that God had inspired a new Koranic verse to him, it was in reaction to a front event which has occurred right. The prophet thus wanting to multiply the wives, a Koranic verse "was opportunely descended" to authorize it to do it, stipulating "You defer those of them that you like it; you make reception with those which it you like "(Al Ahzab, 51). Reaction of Aïcha, jealous: "inni macaw rabbaka youssariôu laka fi hawak" ("I see that your God is hastened to satisfy your desires" - paid by Boukhari, quoting Abou Usama, quoting Hicham Ibn âroua - Tafsir Ibn Kathir, flight III, p. 501)...
Conclusion: if Koranic regulations answer microphone-events going back to 14 centuries, why would they remain valid today? Because one has the faith? With each one to estimate if it is a sufficient reason.
"Coran is not a supermarket"
If one subjects it to an analysis rhetoric, the crowned text has direction only as a whole.
In extracting from the isolated passages comes down using it to validate a quite human speech....
Coran is presented in the form of a complex construction which diverts more than one reader. Because its revelation proceeded on more than one score of years (610-632), putting together sometimes, in same sourates, verses which were delivered with different periods and situations, Coran easily does not let see its internal structure. The erudite European orientalists of XIXème and XXème centuries often affirmed that the Koranic text appeared to them "unstitched" and without literary coherence... Their approach is particularly explained by the fact that the Western thought is marked by Greek rhetoric, built on the basis of these three stage: an introduction, a development and a conclusion. However, other modes of "construction" and scheduling exist, whose study could be a key of entry to renew our reading of Coran. Particularly the Semitic analysis rhetoric, which develops since about fifteen years.
The "specificity" of this rhetoric is initially to be common to the various Semitic cultures, of which the Arab culture is integral part. Let us say, quickly, that this approach - which does not exclude the others - is characterized by a complex play from symmetries, and that at various levels of the text. To analyze Coran with the ell of Semitic rhetoric appears a very profitable method for the interpretation because it enables us to pass from the burst interpretation of the Koranic text, verse by verse, with the interpretation of each sourate which itself is only one stage of a vaster unit. Too much often, indeed, vis-a-vis with a text like the Koranic text, one can be tempted to take such or such verse, such or such passage, without being concerned with what precedes it or follows it, without being concerned with know if, by isolating the sentence member which interests us at the time, one does not betray the unit.
Thus following Koranic passage: "And it is certainly noble Coran/a well kept book/That only purified touch/It is a revelation on behalf of the Lord of the universe" (Al Waqiâ, 77 to 80). A frequent reading of this verse retains especially the call ritually to be purified when one touches Coran. But when one analyzes the structure of the sourate 56, and that one remembers the context of his delivery (competition of the prophet and the soothsayers) one discovers that it was rather a question of authenticating the made revelation with Mohamed by the pure intermediary of "anges". In other words: it is indeed of a prophecy, and not divination. One is far from obligatory ablutions before touching the crowned book! Here how, by taking the text as a whole thanks to the Semitic analysis rhetoric, one discovers directions other than the common direction. Indeed, a verse has direction only compared to the structure of which it forms part. This structure is the door of the direction, and it is thus by finding the structure of the whole of the sourates that one will be able to renew our reading of Coran.
The analysis rhetoric finally learns how to us to respect the Koranic text which is not a "supermarket" where each one will seek that which it needs to validate its speech. The verses are not proverbs!
Rachid Benzine
New thinkers of Islam
Mohammed Arkoun
Algerian, marrying the disciplines, it considers that it is time of démythifier the text crowned while being based on the assets of the hermeneutics, the science of interpretations.
Abdulkarim Khalil
Egyptian, deceased in 2002, it dug in the furrow of Rodinson, by replaçant Coran in his historical context - the faith moreover, since it was âlem.
Nasr Hamid Abou Zeid
Because this Egyptian preached a historical and critical reading of Coran, the obscurantists "divorced it" his wife, before pushing it to exile itself.
Moncef Benabdejalil
Tunisian linguist, it seeks to know if there were successive versions of Coran before it is not established in mushaf by the Caliph Othmane.
Oulfa Youssef
Marrying linguistic and psychology, this Tunisian reads again Coran and shows that as "a truth", the doctors of the Law affirm often only their personal opinion.
Abdoulkarim Soroush
Iranian, teacher respected in Harvard, it pushes the oulémas to be opened on other sciences and wants to substitute the "religious democracy" for the "religious despotism"
Fazlur Rahman
Pakistani, died in 1988, it did not regard Coran the incréée word of God, but as "a formulation of the intentions of God by the Mohamed Prophet".
Abdou Filali Ansary
Morrocan, installed in London, it ceases hammering only secularity and Islam is compatible, historical reading with the support.
Abdelmajid Charfi
Tunisian, it returns to the original message, works it over again and releases some a new direction, more capable to be appropriate to the Moslems wishing to live modernity fully.
at April 8, 2005 9:57 AM


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